An Alternative View on Development Economics
What is Development? According the Encyclopedia of the Developmental Sciences, “The definition of development is ‘the process by which human beings, individually and together, develop their physical, mental, and spiritual skills and attributes.’ In the public school systems, development is usually seen in terms of progress toward a given goal of equality in material benefits, development of individual talents, and development of public policies that enhance these qualities. The ultimate aim of all educational systems, whether they are formally government-established or privately sponsored, is to realize the full potential of each human being and to bring about development of all people.”
In the broad context of development, “human development” refers to the gradual improvement of people’s conditions of life as well as their ability to pursue happiness and attain basic needs. In the economic studies of the private sector, social and economic development is the process through which an individual, area, community, or country improves as per fixed targets and goals on the basis of social and economic criteria that have been determined through long-term historical performance. It also includes the provision of resources required for economic growth and development. These include education, health care, work opportunities, markets, communications and technology. It also covers the control of natural resources, land and its usage for economic growth and development, and transfer of wealth.
The major premise of this theory is that development occurs along complex historical lines, with much influence from socio-cultural as well as psychological variables. Thus, development occurs in parallel with economic growth, with profound consequences for individuals at the individual level as well as for societies as a whole. The history of development thus appears as a socio-economic process, with significant influences from psychological, economic, and other environmental factors. This framework has found profound relevance in the modern thinking about development issues as well as in mainstream economics and social science. However, many of the critics of mainstream economics and social science view this framework as de-realization of human potentiality.
Another prominent argument against development economics is that development occurs according to a complex adaptive system, which is unable to be explained by mainstream economics. The development concept is based on the work of ethologist Elton Mayo, who argued that humans are the only species able to develop complex adaptive systems successfully. Furthermore, human beings are the only animals that have the capability to understand their environments and create adaptive systems within the given environment. This concept has therefore been criticized on the basis that it is theoretically wrong in terms of the basic assumption that all systems that exist in nature can be fully explained in biological terms.
Nevertheless, development theories were able to gain support from diverse disciplines including anthropology, medical science, and psychology, as well as from the field of computer science. In fact, computer science gave birth to a number of alternative concepts related to development, including complexity theory and information science and operational needs management. Complex adaptive systems engineering is a theory designed to explain how complex adaptive systems can be created through a combination of complex algorithms that determine both the internal and external constraints, while also taking into account the strengths and weaknesses of the system. Information science, on the other hand, pertains to the study of information systems, and it is used to explain how the factors that affect an adaptive system interact and why the system tends to grow and change over time. Operations management theory is also another alternative concept in development economics, which emphasizes organizational forms of organization, including functional, managerial, and organizational forms.
Another major critique of the development concept came from cognitive scientists who argue that development does not provide a theory or methodology of how people experience and deal with reality. According to these scientists, development exists as a theory that applies to various fields and areas such as child development and education, while it fails to address the unique needs of individuals because it fails to specify the individual human experience. Theories on development therefore remain theoretical in nature. However, alternative concepts on development have provided an empirical platform for social scientists to conduct more meaningful research.
Alternative theories on development include the concept of individual-based developmental biology, which explains the biological basis for the development of an individual, the environment in which that individual lives, and the influences that mold that environment. Within this framework, biological variation is seen as the primary driver of development. Additionally, theories of development also consider cultural and socio-cultural factors such as language, socialization, and religion that influence development.
Despite the controversy and lack of research in the field of development economics, these alternative concepts continue to be gaining ground. They provide social scientists with a more concrete way of studying development at the macro and micro levels. In effect, development economics offers an alternative methodology by which to understand development at the broadest level possible. This understanding has had profound effects on development practice at all levels of government.
